More Than Recycling: The Importance of Multiple Metrics for a Circular Economy for PV in the Energy Transition

Energy transition to carbon-free electricity is a crucial pillar of the Circular Economy. Renewable energy reduces environmental impacts and decarbonizes the production of other goods. But, manufacturing renewable energy sources, such as photovoltaic (PV) modules, require energy inputs that are currently carbon intensive. So, how do we decarbonize and circularize these critical technologies to achieve a sustainable energy transition? This work proposes that effective capacity-the installed capacity accounting for degradation rates and failures-is a critical metric to evaluate renewable energy technologies on the path toward circular economy and energy transitions. Our analyses also emphasize the importance of examining a suite of metrics incorporating mass and energy flows to identify potential tradeoffs and inform design or lifecycle management decisions holistically.